Race in the Criminal Justice System

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix L, Asset Forfeiture (pp. 171-77 of the PDF)

See also Traffic Stops

Katherine Beckett, Race and Drug Law Enforcement in Seattle (2004) (Prepared on behalf of the Defender Association’s Racial Disparity Project)

• Katherine Ann Beckett, Declaration and Report (2005) summarizes the 2004 study for use in Farrakhan v. Gregoire.

Katherine Beckett, Race and Drug Law Enforcement in Seattle: Report for the American Civil Liberties Union and the Defender Association (2008)

Katherine Beckett et al., Race, Drugs, and Policing: Understanding Disparities in Drug Delivery Arrests, 44 Criminology 105 (2006), [HeinOnline]. Seattle study.

Katherine Beckett, Race, Drugs, and Law Enforcement: Toward Equitable Policing, 11 Criminology & Pub. Pol'y 641 (2011), [HeinOnline].  Part of a symposium, Race, Place, and Drug Enforcement. Response to article by Robin S. Engel et al.

Kim Shayo Buchanan et al., Ctr. for Policing Equity, The Science of Justice: Seattle Police Department (2021), [Document Cloud] (posted by Seattle Times reporter; see Mike Carter, Report: Seattle Police Stop Black People, Native Americans at Far Higher Rate Than White People, Seattle Times (July 26, 2021)).

Robin S. Engel et al., Race, Place, and Drug Enforcement: Reconsidering the Impact of Citizen Complaints and Crime Rates on Drug Arrests, 11 Criminology & Pub. Pol'y 603 (2012), [HeinOnline]. Drug arrests in Seattle. Overview of the article is at page 601. Part of a symposium, Race, Place, and Drug Enforcement.

Tal Klement & Elizabeth Siggins, A Window of Opportunity: Addressing the Complexities of the Relationship between Drug Enforcement and Racial Disparity in Seattle, 1 Seattle J. Soc. just. 165 (2002) [journal]

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix J, Disaggregating Data on Native Hawaiians / Pacific Islanders (pp. 147-57 of the PDF)

Suzanne Morrissey et al., Landscapes of Loss and Recovery: The Anthropology of Police-Community Relations and Harm Reduction, 78 Human Org. 28 (2019), [Soc'y for App. Anthro.]. Analyzes Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD), a collaborative project of the United States Department of Corrections, Seattle Police Department, King County Crisis Diversion Facility, the Defender Association Racial Disparity Project, and ACLU of Washington State.

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix G, DWLS3 (pp. 94-109 of the PDF)

Andrew J. Bloeser et al., Jury Service as Civic Engagement: Determinants of Jury Summons Compliance, 40 Am. Pol. Research 179 (2012), [SAGE Journals]. Reports on a 2006-2008 survey by the Washington State Center for Court Research. "The most pronounced obstacle any individuals in this study faced took the form of cultural barriers. This is significant in that such obstacles pose an obvious problem for creating more diverse and representative juries." Id. at 199.

Washington State Minority & Justice Comm'n Jury Diversity Task Force, 2019 Interim Report (2019).

Lauren Knoth, Elizabeth Drake, Paige Wanner & Eva Westle, Wash. St. Inst. for Pub. Pol'y, Washington State’s Juvenile Justice System: Evolution of Policies, Populations, and Practical Research (2020)

Nella Lee, Juvenile Offenders: A Study of Disproportionality and Recidivism (Wash. State Sentencing Guidelines Comm'n, Olympia: 2001)

Carl McCurley et al., Minority Youth in Washington's Criminal Justice System (2012?), PPT presentation by staff of Washington State Center for Court Research.

Anne McGlynn-Wright, Labels for Some: Long-term Consequences of Police Encounters and Arrests for African American and White Youth (University of Washington master's thesis, 2014) [UW Libraries]. Longitudinal study of African-American and white youth who had encounters with police. From the abstract:

Results suggest that police encounters have no identifiable long-term impact on white youths’ behavior or subsequent criminal justice involvement. However, the impacts of early police encounters for African American youth are striking. Early encounters increase the odds of illegal behaviors nearly 6 years later for African American youth. In addition, African American youth who experience contact by the 8th grade have a nearly 13 times greater odds of experiencing arrest when they are 20 years old than their non-contacted African American peers, even while holding constant self-reported criminal behavior.

Task Force 2.0: Race and the Criminal Justice System, Report and Recommendations to Address Race in Washington’s Juvenile Legal System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021)

Wash. State Sentencing Guidelines Comm'n, Disproportionality and Disparity in Juvenile Sentencing Fiscal Year 2005 ([2005])

Wash. State Sentencing Guidelines Comm'n, Disproportionality and Disparity in Juvenile Sentencing Fiscal Year 2007 (2008)

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix N, Language Access (pp. 195-205 of the PDF)

Cynthia Delostrinos, Michelle Bellmer & Joel McAllister, The Price of Justice: Legal Financial Obligations in Washington State (Olympia: Wash. State Minority & Justice Comm'n, 2022)

Deborah Espinosa, Anna B. Bosch & Carmen Pacheco-Jones, The Cost of Justice: Reform Priorities of People with Court Fines and Fees (Oct. 2021) (produced by Living with Conviction under contract with Washington State Administrative Office of the Courts)

Bryan L. Adamson, Debt Bondage: How Private Collection Agencies Keep the Formerly Incarcerated Tethered to the Criminal Justice System, 15 Nw. J. L. & Soc. Pol'y. 305 (2020), [journal]. "[A]rgues that Washington State’s collection agency referral law, and similar laws in other states, may violate constitutional due process and excessive fine edicts."

Katherine Beckett, Alexes Harris & Heather Evans, The Assessment and Consequences of Legal Financial Obligations in Washington State (Olympia: Wash. State Minority & Justice Comm'n, 2008)

Katherine Beckett & Alexes Harris, On Cash and Conviction: Monetary Sanctions as Misguided Policy, 10 Criminology & Pub. Pol'y 505 (2011), [HeinOnline]. Include Washington State findings.

Laura Bliss, The Disparate Financial Impact of the American Justice System, Bloomberg CityLab (Aug. 11, 2020) (discussing Edward & Harris report, infra).

Frank Edwards, Fiscal Pressures, the Great Recession, and Monetary Sanctions in Washington Courts of Limited Jurisdiction, 4 UCLA Crim. Just. L. Rev. 157 (2020), [journal]

Frank Edwards & Alexes Harris, An Analysis of Court Imposed Monetary Sanctions in Seattle Municipal Courts, 2000-2017 (July 28, 2020) (report prepared for City of Seattle Office for Civil Rights).

Alexes Harris et al., Monetary Sanctions in the Criminal Justice System (report to Laura & John Arnold Found., April 2017). Reviews law and policy in California, Georgia, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Texas, and Washington. Washington discussion is at 201-13.

Alexes Harris et al., Courtesy Stigma and Monetary Sanctions: Toward a Socio-Cultural Theory of Punishment, 76 Am. Socio. Rev. 234 (2011), [ProQuest]. Analyzes data from Washington State superior courts; convictions in 2004.

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix F, Legal Financial Obligations (pp. 88-93)

Michael L. Vander Giessen, Note, Legislative Reforms for Washington State's Criminal Monetary Penalties, 47 Gonz. L. Rev. 547 (2011-12) [HeinOnline]

Jacqueline B. Helfgott, William S. Parkin, Christopher Fisher, Lauren Morgan & Simran Kaur, Trends in Misdemeanor Arrest, Referrals, & Charges in Seattle (2018). Authors affiliated with Seattle University Department of Criminal Justice; study part of the Misdemeanor Justice Project at John Jay College of Criminal Justice Research Network on Misdemeanor Justice.

Kim Shayo Buchanan et al., Ctr. for Policing Equity, The Science of Justice: Seattle Police Department (2021), [Document Cloud] (posted by Seattle Times reporter; see Mike Carter, Report: Seattle Police Stop Black People, Native Americans at Far Higher Rate Than White People, Seattle Times (July 26, 2021)).

Becky Fish, Student Scholarship, Establishing Legitimacy Through Inclusive Re-Formation: The Necessary Process for Re-Forming the Seattle Police Department, 13 Seattle J. Soc. Just. 689 (2014) [journal] [HeinOnline]

Charles C. Lanfear et al., Formal Social Control in Changing Neighborhoods: Racial Implications of Neighborhood Context on Reactive Policing, 17 City & Commun. 1075 (2018), [Wiley Online Library]. Uses data from Seattle.

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix A, Race Disproportionality in Policing (pp. 50-58 of the PDF)

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix C, Pretrial Release (pp. 65-72 of the PDF)

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix E, Prisons and Jails (pp. 77-87 of the PDF)

Michael Callahan, Note, If Justice is Not Equal for All, It is Not Justice: Racial Bias, Prosecutorial Misconduct, and the Right to a Fair Trial in State v. Monday, 35 Seattle U. L. Rev. 827 (2012) [journal] [HeinOnline]

Robert D. Crutchfield, Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Prosecution of Felony Cases in King County : Final Report (Olympia, Wash.: Washington State Minority and Justice Commission, Office of the Administrator for the Courts,[1995])

Rodney L. Engen et al., The Impact of Race and Ethnicity on Charging and Sentencing Processes for Drug Offenders in Three Counties of Washington State: Final Report (1999) [Washington Courts]

Larry Michael Fehr, Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Prosecution and Sentencing: Empirical Research of the Washington State Minority and Justice Commission, 32 Gonz. L. Rev. 577 (1997), available on HeinOnline and Westlaw (subscription databases).

Krista L. Nelson & Jacob J. Stender, Note, Like Wolves in Sheep's Clothing: Combating Racial Bias in Washington State's Criminal Justice System, 35 Seattle U. L. Rev. 849 (2012) [journal] [HeinOnline]

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix B, Prosecutorial Decision-Making (pp. 59-64 of the PDF)

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix M, Public Defense (pp. 178-94 of the PDF)

Anquinette L. Barry, A Multi-Racial-Ethnic Model of Perceived Neighborhood Crime (University of Washington master's thesis, 2014) [UW Libraries] [ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global]. "[I]nvestigates the relationship between Seattle residents' perceptions of the racial-ethnic composition of their neighborhood and their perceptions of neighborhood crime."

Sarah Britto & Krystal E. Noga-Styron, Media Consumption and Support for Capital Punishment, 39 Crim. Just. Rev. 81 (2014), [HeinOnline]. Uses data from 2010 survey in Washington State.

Elizabeth Brown, Race, Urban Governance, and Crime Control: Creating Model Cities, 44 Law & Soc'y Rev. 769 (2010) [HeinOnline]. Discusses law and justice task force of Seattle Model Cities Project.

Kevin M. Drakulich, Estimating Risk and Expressing Fear: Reactions to Crime in Seattle Neighborhoods (University of Washington Ph.D. dissertation, 2009) [catalog record] (not available online).

Kevin M. Drakulich & Robert D. Crutchfield, The Role of Perceptions of the Police in Informal Social Control: Implications for the Racial Stratification of Crime and Control, 60 Soc. Prob. 383 (2013) [Oxford Academic]. Uses data from Seattle.

Kevin M. Drakulich, Perceptions of the Local Danger Posed by Crime: Race, Disorder, Informal Control, and the Police, 42 Soc. Sci. Research 611 (2013) [Elsevier ScienceDirect]. Uses data from Seattle.

Kevin M. Drakulich, Social Capital, Information, and Perceived Safety from Crime: The Differential Effects of Reassuring Social Connections and Vicarious Victimization, 96 Soc. Sci. Q. 176 (2015) [Wiley Online Library]. Uses data from Seattle Neighborhood Crime Survey.

Cynthia Lum, Violence, Drug Markets and Racial Composition: Challenging Stereotypes through Spatial Analysis, 48 Urb. Stud. 2715 (2011), [JSTOR], [Sage Journals]. Study of drug activity and violent crime in Seattle, 1999-2002.

Susan McNeeley & Garrett Grothoff, A Multilevel Examination of the Relationship Between Racial Tension and Attitudes Toward the Police, 41 Am. J. Crim. Just. 383 (2016), [SpringerLink]. Data from Seattle.

Lawrence K. Northwood et al., Law-Abiding One-Man Armies, 16 Soc. 69 (1978), [SpringerLink]. Study of concealed carry applications in Seattle in 1972.

Lincoln Quillian & Devah Pager, Black Neighbors, Higher Crime? The Role of Racial Stereotypes in Evaluations of Neighborhood Crime, 107 Am. J. Socio. 717 (2001), [JSTOR]. Data from Baltimore, Chicago, and Seattle.

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix I, Community Voices (pp. 127-46 of the PDF)

Yuning Wu, Race/Ethnicity and Perceptions of the Police: A Comparison of White, Black, Asian and Hispanic Americans, 24 Policing & Soc'y 135 (2014), [EBSCOhost]. Analyzes survey of Seattle residents.

Kevin M. Drakulich, Robert D. Crutchfield, et al., Instability, Informal Control, and Criminogenic Situations: Community Effects of Returning Prisoners, 57 Crime, L. & Soc. Change 493 (2012) [SpringerLink]. Uses data from Seattle, Washington Dept. of Corrections.

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix H, Community Supervision and Reentry (pp. 110-26 of the PDF)

Seattle Office for Civil Rights, Seattle Reentry Workgroup Final Report (Oct. 2018)

Katherine Beckett & Heather Evans, Race, Death, and Justice: Capital Sentencing in Washington State, 1981-2014, 6 Colum. J. Race & L. 77 (2016) [HeinOnline]

George S. Bridges & Robert D. Crutchfield, Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Imprisonment : Executive Summary and Final Report (Seattle: University of Washington. Institute for Public Policy and Management, 1986). Available in libraries.

Robert D. Crutchfield et al., Racial / Ethnic Disparities and Exceptional Sentences in Washington State : [Final Report] (Olympia, Wash.: Washington State Minority and Justice Commission, Office of the Administrator for the Courts,[1993])

Kathleen Daly, Neither Conflict Nor Labeling Nor Paternalism Will Suffice: Intersections of Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Family in Criminal Court Decisions, 35 Crime & Delinquency 136 (1989), [HeinOnline]. Examines sentencing and pretrial release decisions using data from New York City and Seattle courts.

Rodney L. Engen et al., The Impact of Race and Ethnicity on Charging and Sentencing Processes for Drug Offenders in Three Counties of Washington State: Final Report (1999)

Rodney L. Engen et al., Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Sentencing Outcomes for Drug Offenders in Washington State: FY 1996 to FY 1999 (1999)

Larry Michael Fehr, Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Prosecution and Sentencing: Empirical Research of the Washington State Minority and Justice Commission, 32 Gonz. L. Rev. 577 (1997),  [HeinOnline]

Paula Ditton Henzel, Disproportionality and Disparity in Adult Felony Sentencing 2003 (Wash. State Sentencing Guidelines Comm'n, [2003]).

Lauren Knoth, Wash. St. Inst. for Pub. Pol'y,  Examining Washington State’s Sentencing Guides: A Report for the Criminal Sentencing Task Force (2021).

Nella Lee & Edward M. Vukich, Representation and Equity in Washington State : An Assessment of Disproportionality and Disparity in Adult Felony Sentencing: Fiscal Year 2000 (Olympia: State of Washington Sentencing Guidelines Commission, [2001])

Joel Burt Rosch, Sentencing and Public Policy (University of Washington Ph.D. dissertation, 1980), [catalog record] (not available online). Includes analysis of sentencing patterns in King County, WA. Abstract in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Sara Steen et al., Images of Danger and Culpability: Racial Stereotyping, Case Processing, and Criminal Sentencing, 43 Criminology 435 (2005), [HeinOnline]. Studies sentencing of white and black drug offenders in Washington State.

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix D, Confinement Sentencing Outcomes (pp. 73-76 of the PDF)

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix O, Spokane County Felony Sentencing (pp. 206-37 of the PDF)

Wash. State Sentencing Guidelines Comm'n, Disproportionality and Disparity in Adult Felony Sentencing Fiscal Year 2007 ([2008]).

Wash. State Sentencing Guidelines Comm'n, Disproportionality and Disparity in Adult Felony Sentencing Fiscal Year 2005 (2005).

Mario L. Barnes & Robert S. Chang, Analyzing Stops, Citations, and Searches in Washington and Beyond, 35 Seattle U. L. Rev. 673 (2012) [journal] [HeinOnline]

Clayton Mosher et al., The Importance of Context in Understanding Biased Policing: State Patrol Traffic Citations in Washington State, 9 Police Prac. & Research 43 (2008) [EBSCOhost]

Clayton Mosher & J. Mitchell Pickerill, Methodological Issues in Biased Policing Research with Applications to the Washington State Patrol, 35 Seattle U. L. Rev. 769 (2012) [journal] [HeinOnline]

J. Mitchell Pickerill, Clayton Mosher & Travis C. Pratt, Search and Seizure, Racial Profiling, and Traffic Stops: A Disparate Impact Framework, 31 Law & Pol'y 1 (2009) [HeinOnline]

Task Force 2.0, Race and Washington’s Criminal Justice System: 2021 Report to the Washington Supreme Court (2021), Appendix K, Traffic Stops (pp. 158-70 of the PDF)

Washington State University Extension, Div. of Governmental Studies & Services, Report to the Washington State Patrol ([2021]) (undated but URL includes "12-2-21" and this story about it was Dec. 2, 2022) ("This report presents findings and observations from research conducted for the Washington State Patrol to assess traffic stop and enforcement data for evidence of biased policing.")

George M. Kikuchi, Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Neighborhoods and Crime (Purdue Univ. Ph.D. dissertation, 2008) [ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global]. Includes longitudinal analysis of crime between 1960 and 2005 in Seattle.

Paul E. Smith & Richard O. Hawkins, Victimization, Types of Citizen-Police Contacts, and Attitudes Toward the Police, 8 Law & Soc'y Rev. 135 (1973), [HeinOnline]. Survey data from Seattle.

Anthony Jaime Soto, The Effects of Neighboring, Social Networks, and Collective Efficacy on Crime Victimization: An Alternative to the Systemic Model (Univ. of North Texas Ph.D. dissertation, 2015), [ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global]. Uses data from Seattle Neighborhoods and Crime Survey.

Yuning Wu & Irshad Altheimer, Race/Ethnicity, Foreign-Born Status, and Victimization in Seattle, WA, 3 J. Race & Just. 339 (2013), [Sage Journals]

Taki V. Flevaris & Ellie F. Chapman, Cross-Racial Misidentification: A Call to Action in Washington State and Beyond, 38 Seattle U. L. Rev. 861 (2015) [journal] [HeinOnline]